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Rigveda

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This article is about the collection of Vedic hymns. For the manga series, see RG Veda.
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The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise, verse"[1] and veda "knowledge") is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns.[2] It is counted among the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.[3] Some of its verses are still recited as Hindu prayers, at religious functions and other occasions, putting these among the world's oldest religious texts in continued use. The Rigveda contains several mythological and poetical accounts of the origin of the world, hymns praising the gods, and ancient prayers for life, prosperity, etc.[4]

It is one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language. Philological and linguistic evidence indicate that the Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, roughly between 1700–1100 BC[5] (the early Vedic period). There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo and Sintashta-Petrovka cultures of ca. 2200–1600 BC.

 

Text

The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early Iron Age (c. 10th c. BC) collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas 2–7, ordered by author, deity and meter [6]) and a later redaction, co-eval with the redaction of the other Vedas, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg, 1888).

As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, most importantly the Padapatha that has each word isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the Samhitapatha that combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the Pratisakhya) and is the memorized text used for recitation.

The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text's fidelity and meaning[7] and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period (4th to 6th century AD), by which time the Brahmi script had become widespread (the oldest surviving manuscripts date to the Late Middle Ages).[8] The oral tradition still continued into recent times.

The original text (as authored by the Rishis) is close to but not identical to the extant Samhitapatha, but metrical and other observations allow to reconstruct (in part at least) the original text from the extant one, as printed in the Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 50 (1994).[9]

Organization

The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age and length. The "family books": mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text.

Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta (su-ukta, literally, "well recited, eulogy") intended for various sacrificial rituals. The sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc ("praise", pl.ṛcas), which are further analysed into units of verse called pada ("foot"). The meters most used in the ṛcas are the jagati (a pada consists of 12 syllables), trishtubh (11), viraj (10), gayatri andanushtubh (8).

For pedagogical convenience, each mandala is synthetically divided into roughly equal sections of several sūktas, called anuvāka ("recitation"), which modern publishers often omit. Another scheme divides the entire text over the 10 mandalas into aṣṭaka ("eighth"), adhyāya ("chapter") and varga ("class"). Some publishers give both classifications in a single edition.

The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and stanza (and pada a, b, c ..., if required). E.g., the first pada is

  • 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ "Agni I invoke, the housepriest"

and the final pada is

  • 10.191.4d yáthā vaḥ súsahā́sati

Recensions

The major Rigvedic shakha ("branch", i. e. recension) that has survived is that of Śākalya. Another shakha that may have survived is the Bāṣkala, although this is uncertain.[10][11][12] The surviving padapatha version of the Rigveda text is ascribed to Śākalya.[13] The Śākala recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 vālakhilya hymns[14] which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8.49–8.59), for a total of 1028 hymns.[15] The Bāṣkala recension includes 8 of these vālakhilya hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this śākhā.[16] In addition, the Bāṣkala recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the Khilani.[17]

In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10,552 ṛcs, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432,000,[18] while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr.

Rishis

See also: Anukramani

Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each ṛc of the Rigveda.[19] Most sūktas are attributed to single composers. The "family books" (2–7) are so-called because they have hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda. In all, 10 families of rishis account for more than 95% of the ṛcs; for each of them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific āprī hymn (a special sūkta of rigidly formulaic structure, used for animal sacrifice in the soma ritual).

Family Āprī Ṛcas[20]
Angiras I.142 3619 (especially Mandala 6)
Kanva I.13 1315 (especially Mandala 8)
Vasishtha VII.2 1276 (Mandala 7)
Vishvamitra III.4 983 (Mandala 3)
Atri V.5 885 (Mandala 5)
Bhrgu X.110 473
Kashyapa IX.5 415 (part of Mandala 9)
Grtsamada II.3 401 (Mandala 2)
Agastya I.188 316
Bharata X.70 170

Manuscripts

There are, for example, 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, collected in the 19th century by Georg Bühler, Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including Kashmir, Gujarat, the then Rajaputana, Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College, Pune, in the late 19th century. They are in the Sharadaand Devanagari scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of them is dated to 1464. The 30 manuscripts of Rigveda preserved at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.[21][22]

Of these 30 manuscripts, 9 contain the samhita text, 5 have the padapatha in addition. 13 contain Sayana's commentary. At least 5 manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Viś I) have preserved the complete text of the Rigveda. MS no. 5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part used by Max Müller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana's commentary.

Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in Europe, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at least[23]

Contents

See also: Rigvedic deities

The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are Indra, a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra–Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky, Father Heaven ), Prithivi (the earth, Mother Earth), Surya (the sun god), Vayu or Vata (the wind), Apas (the waters),Parjanya (the thunder and rain), Vac (the word), many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River). The Adityas, Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Ashvins, Maruts, Rbhus, and theVishvadevas ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned.

The hymns mention various further minor gods, persons, phenomena and items, and contain fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa or Dasyu and their mythical prototypes, the Paṇi (the Bactrian Parna).

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century. After a scribal benediction ("śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ ;; Aum(3) ;;"), the first line has the opening words of RV.1.1.1 (agniṃ ; iḷe ; puraḥ-hitaṃ ; yajñasya ; devaṃ ; ṛtvijaṃ). TheVedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.
  • Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods.
  • Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamada śaunahotra.
  • Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduismas the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ.
  • Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vāmadeva gautama.
  • Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvedevas ("all the gods'), the Maruts, the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitr. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri clan.
  • Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya family of Angirasas.
  • Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas, Indra-Varuna, Varuna,Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning) and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaruṇi.
  • Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal vālakhilya. Hymns 1–48 and 60–66 are attributed to the kāṇva clan, the rest to other (Angirasa) poets.
  • Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.
  • Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later language, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta which has great significance in Hindu social tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most celebrated hymn in the west, which deals with creation. The marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10–18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding Grhya rituals.

Dating and historical context

Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of theSwat and Cemetery H cultures are also indicated.

The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 1700–1100 BC.[24] The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BC.[25] Being composed in an early Indo-Aryan language, the hymns must post-date the Indo-Iranian separation, dated to roughly 2000 BC.[26] A reasonable date close to that of the composition of the core of the Rigveda is that of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BC.[27] Other evidence also points to a composition close to 1400 BC[28][29]

The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth onwards. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta,[30] deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times,[31][32] often associated with the early Andronovo culture (or rather, the Sintashta culture within the early Andronovo horizon) of ca. 2000 BC.[33]

The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha, padapatha). This redaction would have been completed around the 6th century BC.[34] Exact dates are not established, but they fall within the pre-Buddhist period (500, or rather 400 BC).

Writing appears in India around the 3rd century BC in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down until much later. While written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they were written on birch bark or palm leaves, which decompose fairly quickly in the tropical climate, until the advent of the printing press from the 16th[dubious – discuss] century CE. Some Rigveda commentaries may date from the second half of the first millennium CE. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princepsby Rosen, Aufrecht and Max Müller.

After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by an extensive body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. The Brahma Purana and theVayu Purana name one Vidagdha as the author of the Padapatha.[35] The Rk-pratishakhya names Sthavira Shakalya of the Aitareya Aranyaka as its author.[36]

The Rigveda describes a mobile, semi-nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots, oxen-drawn wagons, and metal (bronze) weapons. The geography described is consistent with that of the Greater Punjab: Rivers flow north to south, the mountains are relatively remote but still visible and reachable (Soma is a plant found in the high mountains, and it has to be purchased from tribal people). Nevertheless, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest (not preserved) elements possibly reaching back to times close to the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian(around 2000 BC)[37] Thus there was some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they rather hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan (separated from the upperIndus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant).

While it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigvedic hymns were composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is no mention of either tigers or rice[38] in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas), suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion. Similarly, there is no mention of iron as the term ayas occurring in the Rig Veda refers to useful metal in general.[39] The "black metal" (kṛṣṇa ayas) is first mentioned in the post-Rigvedic texts (Atharvaveda etc.). The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 10th century in the Greater Punjab. There is a widely accepted timeframe for the initial codification of the Rigveda by compiling the hymns very late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period, including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas. This time coincides with the early Kuru kingdom, shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. The fixing of the samhitapatha (by keeping Sandhi) intact and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text), occurred during the later Brahmana period.

Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion, while words used share common roots with words from other Indo-European languages.

The horse (ashva), cattle, sheep and goat play an important role in the Rigveda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra, especially in Mandala 8), ass (khara, rasabha), buffalo (Mahisa), wolf, hyena, lion (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the gaur in the Rigveda.[40] The peafowl (mayura), the goose (hamsa) and the chakravaka (Anas casarca) are some birds mentioned in the Rigveda.

Ancillary texts

Rigveda Brahmanas

See also: Brahmana

Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the Bahvṛcas (i.e. "possessed of many verses"), as the followers of the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The Aitareya-brahmana[41] and the Kaushitaki- (or Sankhayana-) brahmana evidently have for their groundwork the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.

The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has forty, divided into eight books (or pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last ten adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Pāṇini (ca. 5th c. BC), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings.

While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, &c., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7–10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11–30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya—the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it—the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.

Rigveda Aranyakas

See also: Aranyaka

Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareyopanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the 1st, 5th, and 3rd books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki (brahmana-) upanishad, of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9–15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers.

Medieval Hindu scholarship

According to Hindu tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it.[citation needed] According to the Śatapatha Brāhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual[citation needed].

The authors of the Brāhmana literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it.

A number of other commentaries bhāṣyas were written during the medieval period, including the commentaries by Skandasvamin (pre-Sayana, roughly of the Gupta period), Udgitha (pre-Sayana),Venkata-Madhava (pre-Sayana, ca. 10th to 12th century) and Mudgala (after Sayana, an abbreviated version of Sayana's commentary).[42]

In contemporary Hinduism

Hindu revivalism

Since the 19th and 20th centuries, some reformers like Swami Dayananda Saraswati, founder of the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have attempted to re-interpret the Vedas to conform to modern and established moral and spiritual norms. Dayananda considered the Vedas (which he defined to include only the samhitas) to be source of truth, totally free of error and containing the seeds of all valid knowledge. Contrary to common understanding, he was adamant that Vedas were monotheistic and that they did not sanction idol worship.[43] Starting 1877, he intended to publish commentary on the four vedas but completed work on only the Yajurveda, and a partial commentary on the Rigveda. Dayananda's work is not highly regarded by Vedic scholars and IndologistLouis Renou, among others, dismissed it as, "a vigorous (and from our point of view, extremely aberrant) interpretation in the social and political sense."[44][45]

Dayananda and Aurobindo moved[clarification needed] the Vedantic perception of the Rigveda from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation.[dubious – discuss] For example, instances of animal sacrifice were not seen by them as literal slaughtering, but as transcendental processes.

"Indigenous Aryans" debate

Further information: Indigenous Aryans and Out of India theory

Questions surrounding the Rigvedic Sarasvati River and the Nadistuti sukta in particular have become tied to an ideological debate on the Indo-Aryan migration (termed "Aryan Invasion Theory") versus the claim that Vedic culture, together with Vedic Sanskrit, originated in the Indus Valley Civilization (termed "Out of India theory"), a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by K. D. Sethna and in Shrikant G. Talageri's The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis. Subhash Kak (1994) claimed that there is an "astronomical code" in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda, in his "The Orion" (1893) had claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the ice age.

Debate on alternative suggestions on the date of the Rigveda, typically much earlier dates, are mostly taking place outside of scholarly literature. Some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early as 4000 BC,[46] a date well within the Indian Neolithic.[47] Publications to this effect have increased during the late 1990s to early 2000s in the context of historical revisionism in Hindu nationalism, notably in books published by Voice of India.[48]

Translations

The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any Western language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen (Rigvedae specimen, London 1830). Predating Müller's editio princeps of the text, Rosen was working from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke.

H. H. Wilson was the first to make a complete translation of the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during the period 1850–88.[49] Wilson's version was based on the commentary ofSāyaṇa. In 1977, Wilson's edition was enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh (Nag Publishers, Delhi, 2nd ed. 1990).

In 1889, Ralph T.H. Griffith published his translation as The Hymns of the Rig Veda, published in London (1889).[50]

A German translation was published by Karl Friedrich Geldner, Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche Übersetzt, Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33–37 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1951-7).[51]

Geldner's translation was the philologically best-informed to date, and a Russian translation based on Geldner's[citation needed] by Tatyana Elizarenkova was published by Nauka 1989–1999[52]

A 2001 revised edition of Wilson's translation was published by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi.[53] The revised edition updates Wilson's translation by replacing obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents, giving the English translation along with the original Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus.

In 2004 the United States' National Endowment for the Humanities funded Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. Jamison as project directors for a new original translation to be issued by Oxford University Press.[54][55]

Numerous partial translations exist into various languages. Notable examples include:

  • A. A. Macdonell. Hymns from the Rigveda (Calcutta, London, 1922); A Vedic Reader for Students (Oxford, 1917).
  • French: A. Langlois, Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes, Paris 1948–51 ISBN 2-7200-1029-4
  • Hungarian: Laszlo Forizs, Rigvéda – Teremtéshimnuszok (Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda), Budapest, 1995 ISBN 963-85349-1-5 Hymns of the Rig-Veda
  • Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty issued a modern selection with a translation of 108 hymns, along with critical apparatus. A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix that work.[56]
  • A new German translations of books 1 and 2 was presented in 2007 by Michael Witzel and Toshifumi Goto (ISBN 978-3-458-70001-2 / ISBN 978-3-458-70001-3).
  • A partial Hindi translation by Govind Chandra Pande was published in 2008 (by Lokbharti Booksellers and Distributors, Allahabad, covering books 3–5).

 

Courtesy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda

  • Rigveda for free download in pdf
  • Yajurveda for free download in pdf
  • Samaveda for free download in pdf
  • Atharvaveda for free download in pdf

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  • हिंदी कहानियाँ Hindi Kahaniyan
    • तेनाली रमन और काली माँ का आशीर्वाद (हिंदी कहानी) Hindi Kahani
    • सत्संग की महिमा Bodh Katha (बोध कथाएं)
    • Jo Log apne mata pita ka samman nahin karte, parivaar se prem nahin karte wo bhagwan ki bhakti nahin kar paate Bodh Katha (बोध कथाएं)
  • भारत के 7 रहस्मयी मंदिर Seven mysterious Mandir Temples in India
    • काल भैरव मंदिर Kaal Bhairav Mandir Temple
    • मेहंदीपुर बालाजी Menhdipur Balaji Mandir Temple
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  • पुराण Puran (Audio Version)
    • A to L
      • Agni Puran अग्नि पुराण (Audio Version) Free download
      • Brahma Puran पुराण (Audio Version) Free download
      • Bhagwat Puran श्रीमद भागवत पुराण (Audio Version) Free download
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      • Ling Puran लिंग पुराण (Audio Version) Free download
    • M to V
      • Markendaya Puran मार्कण्डेय पुराण (Audio Version) Free download
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  • Stories for Kids (English)
    • The Two Goats - English Story for Kids
    • Dr. Froggy - English Story for Kids
    • The Dishonest Friend - English Story for Kids
    • A Gentle Lesson- English Story for Kids
    • Hard Earned Money - English Story for Kids
    • Live in the real world - English Story for Kids
    • patience always pays - English Story for Kids
    • the guard dog - English Story for Kids
    • the magical pot - English Story for Kids
    • the story of wells - English Story for Kids
    • Fruits of Labour- English Story for Kids
    • Habbits do not change- English Story for Kids
    • Nita's Foolishness- English Story for Kids
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    • Power of Speech- English Story for Kids
    • The Camels Comments- English Story for Kids
    • The Clever Merchant- English Story for Kids
    • The Foolish Dogs- English Story for Kids
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    • The Goat's Advice- English Story for Kids
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    • The Raw Lunch- English Story for Kids
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    • The Wicked Wolf- English Story for Kids
    • The Woodcutter and the Eagle- English Story for Kids
    • Value of Time- English Story for Kids
    • What to Buy- English Story for Kids
    • A Good Leader - English Story for Kids
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    • Respect Everyone - English Story for Kids
    • Riku's Laziness - English Story for Kids
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    • The Green Gold - English Story for Kids
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    • Pride and Wealth - English Story for Kids
    • King Vikramaditya - English Story for Kids
    • Ganga's Intelligence - English Story for Kids
    • Dreams come true - English Story for Kids
    • The three thieves - English Story for Kids
    • The Monkey's Justice - English Story for Kids
    • God Helps Those Who Help Themselves - English Story for Kids
    • The Magical Shoes - English Story for Kids
    • The Poor Devotee - English Story for Kids
    • Cup of Coffee on The Wall an Article by Vijaya Budhiraja
  • Ayurved - Gharelu Nuskhe
    • aankh aana conjuctivitis ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Cardamom is Pain Killer Badi Ilaychi ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • AJVAYAN - malaria ka ilaaj treatment ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Kharbooja (Musk Melon) ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Sair Ke Fayade, benefits of walk ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Black Chana increases energy badaye oorja ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • na badhne den motapa do not gain fat, how to reduce fat, motapa kam karne ke upay ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Aloevera controls weight vajan vazan bhaar niyantran karen aloevera, ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Garmi mein Loo (Lu) se bachne ke upay ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Gathiya Arthritis Rog ka Ilaaj Upay Ayurved Gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • bahupyogi kela, multi benefits of banana fruit ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • aanvla is helpful in high blood pressure ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • health tips for care of skin in summers garmiyon mein tvacha ki dekhbhaal ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • hara dhaniya ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • torai tori ke gun ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • chakkar aana vertigo ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • hichki mein adrak laabhkari hai hiccups ginger ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • papita papaya ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • shakahaar benefits of being vegetarian ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • tarbooz tarbooj ke fayade benefits of walter melon ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • aankhon ki dekhbhaal, computer work, computer kar kary karte huye (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • aankhon ki kamzori (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Amarbel - Cuscutta - Khujli mein upyogi (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • arbi (colocasia Taroroot) ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Baalon Hetu Gharelu Upchar Hair Problems coconut oil hairfall - ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • baithe hue gale ke liye anubhoot prayog ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Complete Diet Banana (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Dengu fever, gilloy ghan ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • drink milk for calcium doodh piyen ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Ghaav mein upyogi hai Phitkari (Alum) wound (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • gunkaari gulab rose ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Gunon se paripoorn haldi turmeric (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Haathon ka kaalapan door karne ke upay (Tanning) (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Hichki (Hiccups) (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Honey is Antiseptic (antiseptic hai shehad) (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Hriday Rog mein laabhkaari tulsi basil (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • kaan ka dard (ear pain) use Onion pyaz ka prayog karen ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • kamar dard back pain backache ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Kohni ke kaale dhabbon hetu upchaar coconutoil lemon black spots on skin ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Lahsun (garlic controls blood pressure) ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • mal ke saath aanv aana - neem ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • munh ke rog door kare pudeena ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • munh ki durgandh bad breath ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Pairon ke dard hetu upay (sendha namak) (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • peptic ulcer hetu upay (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • pet hetu aushadhi hai dahi (stomach) ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Pet mein na rehne den kabz - constipation (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • pyria ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • Sehat Ka Khazana - Paneer (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • shareer ka dard (body pain) ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips
    • shareer mein chubhe kaante ko nikaalne ki saral vidhi (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • Tooth Pain (daant dard) (ayurved gharelu nuskhe health tips)
    • yaaddasht badhaye Badaam - Almonds Memory Health Tips
  • Bhagwad Gita Saar
    • What is Nishkaam Karm Kya Hai - Bhagwad Geeta
    • Karm Vs Akarm Vs Vikarm (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Laabh aur Haani Saransh (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Krodh kya hai (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Dharma Kartavya Saransh (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Jeevan Mrityu Saransh (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Karm Yog Vs Gyan Yog (Bhagwad Geeta)
    • Gyan hi Sarvottam (Bhagwad Geeta)
  • Dharm धर्म
    • Know The Nature Of Any Person According To Birth Month Rashifal 2016 Jyotish
    • Know The Nature Of Any Person According To first letter of name- Rashifal 2016 Jyotish
  • Baba Bulle Shah (Kaafian)
    • About Sant Bulle Shah Ji
    • Aa mil yaar saar lae meri - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Ab Lagan Lagi Ki Kariye (Kafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Bas Kar Ji -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Bulla Ki Jaana Main Kaun (Kafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Bulle Nu Samjhavan Aaiyan-kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Dil Loche Maahi Yaar Nu - Kaafi Baba Bulle Shah Ji
    • Ghadiali Deyo Nikal- kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Hindu Nahin Na Musalman -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Ilmon Bas karin O yaar- kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Kar Kattan Wal Dhyan Kude (Kafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Khaaki - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • mainu ki hoyea - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • main kyonkar jaavan kaabe nu - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • mainu kaun pachhane - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Meri Bukkal De Vich chor - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Paani Bhar Bhar Gaeeyan Sabhe -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Paandhia Ho -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Paatian Likhan Main Sham nu -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Paya Hai Kichh Paya Hai -kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Ranjha Ranjha Kardi Ni Main (Kafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Taangh Mahi Di Jalli Haan - kaafi baba bulle shah
    • Tere Ishq Nachaya (Kaafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Wah Wah Maati Di Gulzar (Kafi Baba Bulle Shah)
    • Vahdat da dariya- kaafi baba bulle shah
  • Short Motivational Hindi Stories
    • mahabharat katha - Pranaam ka mahatva- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Aadhi Roti Ka Karz- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Neech to wo log hain...- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Jeena isi ka naam hai- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • BESHAK - Allah ne use de diya- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Mrityu ke pashchat Swarg prapti kaise karen (Mahatma Budh)- Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Kahin Hum Bhi Khoontiyon se to nahin bandhe hain - Hindi Motivational story prernadayak kahani
    • Bhagwan Ki Yojna- Hindi Motivational story Kahani
    • hum gusse mein chillate kyun hain- Hindi Motivational story Kahani
    • Bina Mrityu Ke Punarjanam- Hindi Motivational story Kahani
    • Kabootar aur Insaan- Hindi Motivational story Kahani
    • main aur mera laptop aksar baaten karte hain- Hindi Motivational story
    • Zinda Maa Ka Shraadh- Hindi Motivational story
    • Bhagwan jo karta hai theek karta hai tolstoy- Hindi Motivational story
    • Bhagwan Ki Yojna, God's Planning- Hindi Motivational story
    • Apne Lakshya par vishwas kayam rakhiye- Hindi Motivational story
    • Doosron se apni tulna mat karo--Donot compare yourself to others- Hindi Motivational story
    • Jode Ghar Ki Sewa Ka Mahatva-Hindi Kahani
    • Safal Jeevan Kya Hota Hai (what is successful life)- Hindi Kahani
    • Sadhu Ki Jhopdi (Postive and Negative Attitude)- Hindi Kahani
    • Bheem Ki seekh -Mahabharat ki Kahani - Hindi Kahani
    • Satsang Ka asar kyun nahin hota? - Hindi kahani
    • Aap Kya Banege - Sher ya Geedar - Hindi kahani
    • Kya bhagwan hamen dekh raha hai (Is god watching us?)-- Hindi Kahani
    • Shaitan ko bhi bhagwan ka aadesh maanana padta hai-- Hindi Kahani
    • Bhagwan (Ishwar) sabki raksha karta hai-- Hindi Kahani
    • Satsang Ko Aachran Mein Lana Hoga- Hindi Kahani
    • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao- Hindi Kahani
    • Jeevan Ka Sahi Lakshya aur Disha - Hindi Kahani
    • ANTIM DAUD - last race paropkar Story hindi Kahani)
    • Stress Management (Chinta Dukh se bachne ka saral upay)- Katha (Short Story hindi Kahani)
    • Wo Prabhu Ki Meharbani Thi - Katha Bhagwan (Short Story hindi Kahani)
    • MANN KI JHEEL -Bodh Katha Bhagwan (Short Story hindi Kahani)
    • HIMMAT MAT HAARO (Short Story hindi Kahani)
    • SANSAR KYA HAI - What is world (Short Story hindi Kahani)
    • PARMATMA KA SHUKRA KAREM Always thank God (Short Story hindi)
    • SHUDH PAVITRA (Bhakt Kabir Ji ke Jivan se judi Hindi Kahani Story)
    • KAHAN HAI BHAGWAN - Where is God- Hindi short story kahani
    • MANOBAL MORALE- Hindi short story kahani
    • Sabko Khush Nahin Kiya Ja Sakta video hindi story kahani
    • Bhagwan ki Marzi (Ichchha) God's Will- Hindi short story kahani
    • Kaun Kiska Maalik- Hindi short story kahani
    • Pencil Ki Kahani, Pencil Ke Gun- Hindi short story kahani
    • Aatam Vishleshan (Introspection)- Hindi short story kahani
    • Hakim Lukmaan (Hakeem Lukman)- Hindi short story kahani
    • BAS NAZARIYE KA FARK HAI (Shiksha)- Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • Guru Ji Ki Seekh (Shiksha)- Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • Upyogi Hal- Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • RANI KA HEERON KA HAAR- Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • RINANUBANDH - Dr. Dinesh Chamola - Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • Bada Bhikhari Kaun - Dr. Dinesh Chamola - Hindi short story laghu katha bodh katha
    • Vismriti (Short Story)
    • Gantavya (Short Spiritual Story)
    • Sadabaahar Bhakti (Short Story)
    • Saadhna (Short Story)
    • DO NAGINE (Two Gems) Jewish Story Yahudi Kahani - short hindi motivational story
    • BHAKT KABIR Ji ke jivan se judi kahani - short hindi motivational story
    • PREM, DHAN AUR SAFALTA - short hindi motivational story
    • Bole Hue Shabd Vaapis nahin hote - hindi short motivational inspirational story
    • Ek Gilas Doodh - Hindi short motivational story kahani
    • GYAN AUR VIVEK KO JIVAN MEIN NIYAMPOORVAK LANA HOGA - short hindi motivational story kahani
    • Kartavya Ka Paath - hindi kahani/story
    • Kinaare baithkar savikaari usne lehron ki chunauti - hindi kahani/story
    • Jab Bhikhari bana daata aur Raja bana yaachak - hindi kahani/story
    • Karm Ki Mahanta - hindi motivationa inspirational story
    • Krodh par vijay - hindi short motivational insipirational story
    • KSHMA V SADBHAVNA - hindi kahani/story
    • Mandbudhi Baalak Vidwaan Vardraaj bankar ubhra - hindi kahani/story
    • Mor Ban-ne ki chaahat mein Kaue ki hui durgati - hindi kahani/story
    • Muft Anaron ki keemat nahin samjhi - hindi kahani/story
    • Namarta Ka Paath - hindi kahani/story
    • NINDA KARNE KI PRAVRITI - hindi kahani/story
    • Okayo Ki Drid Ichchha Shakti - short hindi motivational story kahani
    • Sant Ki baatein sunkar kroor raja sudhar gaya - hindi kahani/story
    • Shakti Jeevan hai, durbalta mrityu hai - hindi story-kahani
    • Zindgi Ka Kadva Sach - short hindi motivational story
  • Short Motivational English Stories
    • An Old Man Lived in the Village - Short English Inspirational motivational story
    • The-Foolish-Donkey - Short English Inspirational motivational story
    • The Wise Man- Short English Inspirational motivational story
    • The Elephant Rope (Belief) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • A Pound of Butter (Honesty) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • Puppies for Sale (Understanding) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • Control Your Temper (Anger) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • The Butterfly (Struggles) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • The Obstacle In Our Path (Opportunity) - English Inspirational motivational story
    • The Group of Frogs (Encouragement)- English Inspirational motivational story
    • Thinking Out of the Box - English Inspirational motivational story
    • There's no competition In DESTINY, run your own RACE and wish others-english motivational story
    • Helping others is helping mankind--english motivational story
  • Religious Scriptures
    • Bhagwad Geeta in Hindi .pdf FREE DOWNLOAD
    • Bhagwad Geeta in pdf format
      • Sunder Kand with Hanuman Chalisa in pdf format for free download
    • Bhagwad Geeta in English .pdf
    • Hanuman Chalisa for free download in pdf
    • Quran in Hindi Language for free download in .pdf format
    • Quran in Hindi Language pdf download
    • Ramcharit Manas in hindi .pdf FREE DOWNLOAD
  • Hamare Sant Mahapurush
    • Hinduism Hindu dharam mein hue mahan guru aur unki mahima
    • Shirdi Ke Sai Baba Sain Baba
    • Sant Ravidas Ji
    • Swami Vivekanand
      • Quotes of Swami Vivekanand
    • Maharishi Arvind
    • Bhagat Meera Bai Ji
    • Bhagat Rahim Ji
    • Bhagat Namdev Ji
    • Bhagat Bikhan Ji
    • Bhagat Sain Ji
    • Bhagat Dhanna Ji
    • Bhagat Dhruv Ji
    • Bhagat Shekh Farid Ji
    • Goswami Tulsidas
    • Sant Gyaneshwar
    • Bhakt Kabir
      • Bhakt Kabir - Jeevan aur Shikshayen
    • Sant Sukrat (Saint Socrates)
  • Upanishad
    • Mundaka Upanishad
  • Vedas
    • Rigveda for free download in pdf
    • Yajurveda for free download in pdf
    • Samaveda for free download in pdf
    • Atharvaveda for free download in pdf
  • Puran
    • Agni Puran in pdf for free download
    • Bhagwat Puran in pdf for free download
    • Bhavishya Puran in pdf for free download
    • Brahma Puran in pdf for free download
    • Brahmand Puran in pdf for free download
    • Garuda Puran in pdf for free download
    • Kurma Puran in pdf for free download
    • Ling Puran in pdf for free download
    • Markandya Puran in pdf for free download
    • Matsay Puran in pdf for free download
    • Narad Puran in pdf for free download
    • Padma Puran in pdf for free download
    • Shiv Puran in pdf for free download
    • Skand Puran in pdf for free download
    • Brahm Vaivtra Puran in pdf for free download
    • Vaman Puran in pdf for free download
    • Varah Puran in pdf for free download
    • Vishnu Puran in pdf for free download
  • Hindu Religion
    • नवरात्र Navratri (Navratr) in Hindi
      • Ma Shailputri (माँ शैलपुत्री) नवरात्र Navratri (Navratr) in Hindi
      • Ma Brahmcharini ब्रह्मचारिणी - इसका अर्थ- ब्रह्मचारीणी
      • Ma Chandraghanta चंद्रघंटा - इसका अर्थ- चाँद की तरह चमकने वाली
      • Ma Kooshmanda कूष्माण्डा - इसका अर्थ- पूरा जगत उनके पैर में है
      • Ma Sakand Mata स्कंदमाता - इसका अर्थ- कार्तिक स्वामी की माता
      • Ma Kaatyani कात्यायनी - इसका अर्थ- कात्यायन आश्रम में जन्मि
      • Ma Kaalratri कालरात्रि - इसका अर्थ- काल का नाश करने वली
      • Ma Mahagauri महागौरी - इसका अर्थ- सफेद रंग वाली मां
      • Ma Sidhidaatri सिद्धिदात्री - इसका अर्थ- सर्व सिद्धि देने वाली
    • Navratri in English
    • Hindu Gods
      • Bhagwan Ram (Lord Rama)
      • Panchmukhi Hanuman Ji पंचमुखी हनुमान जी
      • Bhagwan Krishan (Lord Krishna)
      • Bhagwan Vishnu (Lord Vishnu) Narayan Hari
      • Bhagwan Shiv (Lord Shiva) God of Death
      • Bhagwan Shiv (Lord Shiva) God of Death
    • Hindu Dharm ke Vrat env tyohaar
      • Karva Chauth vrat kya hai, karva chauth vrat ki sampoorn vidhi
    • Shraad meaning (sharad Shradh)
      • पितृ पक्ष Pitra Paksh
    • Hartalika Teej
    • Ganesh Chaturthi गणेश चतुर्थी
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